In the seventh century B.C. the governmental system of Athens began a radical new evolution. The monarchist autocracy was replaced by an aristocratic oligarchy, a government ruled by a few of the best and the brightest of the upper class rather than by a single monarch. This tookquite some time for the Athenians to adjust to; however in the end, it was best for the country. The aristocrats of Athens wanted to control the destiny, power, and new wealth of their state. The population was growing fast, spreading across the Mediterranean Sea. Their culture developed into a powerful force, adjusting to incorporate the cultures of the nations conquered by the Athenians while retaining their individual style.
Athens was developing into a powerful state and accumulating a great deal of wealth. Their trade and commerce was booming, aided in part by rich farmland and productive workers, but also by their new status as a sea power. The newly rising wealthy class wanted to share the power of the monarchs of Athens and threatened to stage a coup d’etat. They were willing to support a tyrant who supported their interests so long as they had a say in the government. A rebellion ensued, and Draco, the ruler in 621, imposed harsh penalties for wrongdoers. Under Draconian law, criminals of any sort were put to death. Citizens fell into debtor slavery. The laws were interpreted in such a way to cause extreme strife and hardships. Citizens felt enfranchised as they earned wealth, and joined the emerging wealthy class. This promise of wealth motivated citizens to work harder than slaves, so as to earn a place in the world even without the distinction as nobility.
When Solon came to power as a liberal aristocrat in 594 B.C., his policy attempted to avert tyranny at all costs. He is credited as having laid the foundations for Athenian democracy. Many reforms were issued so that Solon would gain the popularity and support of the Athenian citizens. His first act changed the Draconian law code to a friendlier system. All debts were cancelled, and debtor slaves were freed. Under Solon, commerce livened as citizenship was granted to foreign artisans to create an explosion of culture and promote trade and commerce.
Solon also instituted a salary for public offices so that more citizens would run for a position in the public office. State office was open to the wealthiest citizens, regardless of birth. The upper two classes of citizens were able to participate in the Areopagus, a judicial counsel originally created to try homicide cases. Three Archons were elected to lead specific areas of life every ten years; however Solon briefly increased that number to ten. The ecclesia consisted of all male citizens over the age of 18 who were wealthy enough to be able to spend their lives working for the ecclesia, and nominated magisters. Solon also instituted the “boule,” a counsel of 400 men representing the four tribes of Athens. All male citizens over the age of 18 were able to participate in the popular court where everyone could vote, and class was determined by the agricultural production. Unfortunately, there was not enough land in Athens for this system to work to the maximum effect, so others, such as merchants or artisans, became angry when they earned wealth through other ways and still could not participate in the counsels. The birth of capitalism through private wealth and power fell upon hard times.
After Solon, tyrants such as Peisistratus and his son Hippias gained power. Peisistratus seized the power in the Acropolis after the death of Solon, thus entering the history books as a tyrant. He was driven out twice, but returned en masse with his supportive army and was welcomed by the Athenians who thought he has the blessing of Athena. Tyrant that he was, Peisistratus is credited as having created the first welfare state. His son, Hippias, became a cruel and harsh tyrant. With the help of the Spartans, he was overthrown. However, Sparta came to fear Athens’ drift towards democracy, and with the help of Persia, attempted to reinstate Hippias, but was unsuccessful.
A new leader, Kleisthenes, led between 508 and 501 B.C. He needed a new way to enfranchise his citizens due to public disputes over the land issue, and decided to re-zone the Athenian polis. He created ten new tribes to replace the traditional four, and seventeen demes, or subdivisions of the polis. Each deme had a socio-economic restructuring, and was required to vote for the best interests as a whole. In addition, Kleisthenes adjusted the rules of the boule so that instead of a counsel of 400, it became a counsel of 500, with fifty members from each of the ten tribes of Athens.
In 461 B.C., Pericles assumed power, and helped to usher in the Golden Age of Greece. He severely limited the power of the Areopagus, controlled by the aristocratic oligarchy, and replaced it with ten Strategoi, or general directors, who were elected by all male citizens over the age of 18 on a yearly basis. State offices offered a paid income, so that members of the lower classes would be more inclined to run for office. The General Assembly might pass all laws especially when in reference to foreign policy, and could even choose whether to hold a war or to remain neutral. The lower classes usually felt favorable towards war, because it meant, when won, an extra boost in the economy and in the national bank.
Under Pericles, the Athenian and Greek culture in general flowered and gained a sense of posterity. Pericles wanted to make Athens a city of value for future generations, and commissioned the Parthenon to be built in honor of Athena. Athens became an intellectual center of the world, as philosophers came together to understand nature and the development of reason.
Pericles led Athens from the end of the Persian War through most of the Peloponnesian Wars. An attack from Persia always intimidated the Greeks, even though they had deflected Persia in the past. There was no guarantee about the future. Therefore, the Delian League was created as a defense field, much like NATO today. Their goal was to unify Greece and to avenge the wrongs done by Persia. However, when Sparta and Persia joined forces, Athens used this betrayal to call together the Delian League to unite and become more powerful. Athens became a shining city, however democracy still frightened their enemies. Democracy was chaotic, and many did not like this government.
The war with Persia threatened western civilization with complete annihilation. Sparta and Athens overcame their differences and years of enmity and fought together. The Spartan women were able to run their state as independent members of their society, and the Spartan homeland was left untouched. Athens, however, was all but destroyed. A power shift occurred in Athens from the aristocratic oligarchy as the lower class warriors in the battle of Salamis wanted enfranchisement, like the rest of the country had the opportunity to achieve. All of these factors led to the eventual rise of Pericles, and the Golden Age of Greece.
The Greeks preferred democracy to the tyranny that oppressed them in the past, and were willing to fight many a battle to retain their freedoms. As master of its own fate, Athens connected economic and political opportunities for all, and reaped the benefits of their hard work and toil.
